TEXT AND HYPERTEXT
[sistem multimedia pert. 3]
Hypertext is
text displayed on a computer display or
other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text which the reader can
immediately access, or where text can be revealed progressively at multiple
levels of detail (also called StretchText). The
hypertext pages are interconnected by hyperlinks, typically activated by a
mouse click, keypress sequence or by touching the screen. Apart from text,
hypertext is sometimes used to describe tables, images and other presentational content forms with hyperlinks. Hypertext is the
underlying concept defining the structure of the World Wide Web,[1] with pages often written in the Hypertext Markup
Language (aka HTML). It enables an easy-to-use and flexible
connection and sharing of information over the Internet.
Note
how hypertext is not just flat text with highlights or paragraphs omitted
during display, but rather, the text is hyper-structured with hyperlinks or
other structures embedded inside a page, including hidden search words, to
control the display and connection with other pages or hypertext nodes.
Etymology
The
English prefix hyper- comes from the Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means
"over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix
"super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the
previous linear constraints of written text. The term "hypertext" is
often used where the term "hypermedia" might seem appropriate. In
1992, author Ted Nelson – who
coined both terms in 1963 – wrote:
By
now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching
and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning
complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well
as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term
"interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not
express the idea of extending hypertext.
Types
and uses of hypertext
Hypertext
documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic
(continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages). Static hypertext can be
used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or
books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other
user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Links used in a hypertext document usually
replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A less
known and used feature is StretchText, which expands
or contracts the content in place giving more control to the reader in
determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Hypertext can
develop very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The
most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, first deployed in 1992.
History
Main article: History of hypertext
In
1941, Jorge Luis Borges created The Garden of
Forking Paths, a branching style short story that is often considered an
inspiration for the concept of hypertext.
In
1945, Vannevar Bush wrote
an article in The Atlantic Monthly called
"As We May Think",
about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex.
This was a microfiche that stopped where you told it to, but not a punctuation
nor a network document standard.
In
1963, Ted Nelson coined
the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' in a model he developed for creating and
using linked content (first published reference 1965). He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing
System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University.
Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system
in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding,
personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until
1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning
editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known
as "The Mother of All
Demos". The word processor had been born.
The
first hypermedia application was the Aspen Movie Map in 1977. This allowed users to
choose which way they wanted to drive in a virtual cityscape.
In
1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system
somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation,
which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of
experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and
terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web. Guide, the first significant hypertext system
for personal computers, was
developed by Peter J. Brown at UKC in
1982.
In
August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention.
Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and
released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and
enthusiasm for databases and new media. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting
and databases) academic conference took
place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications,
including the branched literature writing software Storyspace, were also demonstrated.
Meanwhile
Nelson, who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades, along
with the commercial success of HyperCard, stirred Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary
ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was
released.
In
1990, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN,
proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request
for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among
physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the
project "WorldWideWeb".
HyperText is a way to link and
access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can
browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many
large classes of stored information such as reports, notes, data-bases,
computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation
of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored
information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the
requirements for information access needs by experiments... A program which
provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R.
Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN
In
1992, Lynx was
born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links
within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began
the creation of the Web on the Internet.
As
new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded
from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result,
all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web,
even though it originally lacked many features of those earlier systems, such
as an easy way to edit what you were reading.
Implementations
Besides
the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing
System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other
noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:
Hypertext Editing System (HES)IBM 2250 Display console – Brown
University 1969
·
FRESS –
a 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing
System.
·
Electronic Document
System – an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive
hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction.
·
Information
Presentation Facility – used to display online help in IBM operating
systems.
·
Intermedia –
a mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing.
·
Storyspace – a mid-1980s program for hypertext
narrative.
·
XML with
the XLink extension – a newer hypertext markup
language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML.
·
Wikis –
aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers.
Various wiki software have
slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than HTML.
·
Adobe's Portable Document
Format – a widely used publication format for electronic documents
including links.
·
PaperKiller – a document editor specifically
designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as IPer (educational
project for ED-Media 1997).
·
Amigaguide – released on the Commodore Amiga Workbench 1990.
Academic
conferences
Among
the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference
on Hypertext and Hypermedia. Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web
series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, include many papers of interest.
There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series.
Hypertext
fiction
Main article: Hypertext fiction
Hypertext
writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and
proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic
networks. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia became
available in the 1990s.
Storyspace
2.0, a professional level hypertext
development tool, is available from Eastgate Systems, which has also published many
notable works of electronic
literature, including Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story, Shelley Jackson'sPatchwork Girl, Stuart Moulthrop's Victory Garden, Bill Bly's "We Descend", Deena Larsen's "Samplers", and Judy Malloy's its name was
Penelope, Forward Anywhere. Other works include Julio Cortázar's Rayuela and Milorad Pavić'sDictionary of the
Khazars. The first Italian hypertextual novel by Lorenzo
Miglioli, "Ra-Dio", was written using Storyspace.
On
the other hand, always concerning the Italian production, the hypertext
s000t000d by Filippo Rosso (2002), was intended to lead the reader (with the
help of a three-dimensional map) in a web page interface, and was written in
html and php.
An
advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning
of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that
is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative
use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative,
can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.
One
of the most successful computer games of all time, Myst,
was first written in Hypercard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages,
each Age consisting of a separate Hypercard stack. The full stack of the game
consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways Myst redefined interactive fiction,
using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.
Critics
of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by
creating several different tracks to read on, and that this in turn contributes
to a postmodernist fragmentation
of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of
appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks), where ease of linking fragments may
lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives. However,
they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same
subject in a simple way. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and
psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public
culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" as
people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world and ways of
interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and
media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical
forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized
and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links.
Forms
of Hypertext
There
are various forms of hypertext, each of which are structured differently. Below
are three of the existing forms of hypertext:
axial hypertexts
are the most simple in structure. They are situated along an axis in a linear
style. These hypertexts have a straight path from beginning to end and are
fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext is The Virtual
Disappearance of Miriam.
arborescent hypertexts
are more complex than the axial form. They have a branching structure which
resembles a tree. These hypertexts have one beginning but many possible
endings. The ending that the reader finishes on depends on their decisions
whilst reading the text. This is much like the Goosebumps novels that allow readers to choose
their own ending.
networked hypertexts
are more complex still than the two previous forms of hypertext. They consist
of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation.
Unlike the aborescent form, nextworked hypertexts do not have any designated
beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl.
HTML & CSS
HTML
(the Hypertext Markup Language) and CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) are two of the
core technologies for building Web pages. HTML provides the structure of the
page, CSS the (visual and aural) layout, for a variety of devices. Along with
graphics and scripting, HTML and CSS are the basis of building Web pages and
Web Applications. Learn more below about:
What
is HTML?
HTML
is the language for describing the structure of Web pages. HTML gives authors
the means to:
Publish
online documents with headings, text, tables, lists, photos, etc.
Retrieve
online information via hypertext links, at the click of a button.
Design
forms for conducting transactions with remote services, for use in searching
for information, making reservations, ordering products, etc.
Include
spread-sheets, video clips, sound clips, and other applications directly in
their documents.
With
HTML, authors describe the structure of pages using markup. The elements of the
language label pieces of content such as “paragraph,” “list,” “table,” and so
on.
What
is XHTML?
XHTML
is a variant of HTML that uses the syntax of XML, the Extensible Markup
Language. XHTML has all the same elements (for paragraphs, etc.) as the HTML
variant, but the syntax is slightly different. Because XHTML is an XML application,
you can use other XML tools with it (such as XSLT, a language for transforming
XML content).
What
is CSS?
CSS
is the language for describing the presentation of Web pages, including colors,
layout, and fonts. It allows one to adapt the presentation to different types
of devices, such as large screens, small screens, or printers. CSS is
independent of HTML and can be used with any XML-based markup language. The
separation of HTML from CSS makes it easier to maintain sites, share style
sheets across pages, and tailor pages to different environments. This is
referred to as the separation of structure (or: content) from presentation.
What
is WebFonts?
WebFonts
is a technology that enables people to use fonts on demand over the Web without
requiring installation in the operating system. W3C has experience in
downloadable fonts through HTML, CSS2, and SVG. Until recently, downloadable
fonts have not been common on the Web due to the lack of an interoperable font
format. The WebFonts effort plans to address that through the creation of an
industry-supported, open font format for the Web (called "WOFF").
Examples
The
following very simple example of a portion of an HTML document illustrates how
to create a link within a paragraph. When rendered on the screen (or by a
speech synthesizer), the link text will be “final report”; when somebody
activates the link, the browser will retrieve the resource identified by
“http://www.example.com/report”:
<p
class="moreinfo">For more information see the
<a
href="http://www.example.com/report">final
report</a>.</p>
The
class attribute on the paragraph's start tag (“<p>”) can be used, among
other thing, to add style. For instance, to italicize the text of all
paragraphs with a class of “moreinfo,” one could write, in CSS:
p.moreinfo
{ font-style: italic }
sumber :
- ^ "Internet". West's Encyclopedia of American Law (definition) (2 ed.). Free Online Law Dictionary. July 15, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
- Jump up^ Hypertext and creative writing, The Association for Computing Machinery.
- Jump up^ Joyce, MI, Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" (sic), meaning fast editing" at Vassar College?, Vassar
- Jump up^ Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213
- ^ Jump up to:a b WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project, The World Wide Web consortium.
- Jump up^ SIGWEB Hypertext Conference, ACM.
- Jump up^ IW3C2.
- Jump up^ "Conferences", IW3C2.
- Jump up^ Parrish, Jeremy. "When SCUMM Ruled the Earth". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- Jump up^ ¿Es el hipertexto una bendición o un…? [Is hypertext a blessing or a…?] (in Castilian), Biblum literaria, Jul 2008.
- Jump up^ The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,CA: U Calgary.
- Jump up^ Green 2001, p. 15.
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext
- http://www.w3.org/standards/webdesign/htmlcss
RezaMaulana 1401123200
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar